Population genetics is the study of genetic variation within populations. It examines the distribution of alleles, genotypes, and phenotypes, as well as the forces shaping these distributions over time. Population genetics research investigates the genetic composition of populations, the factors influencing genetic variation, and the effects of genetic variation on the population’s evolution and adaptation.
Population: A Group with Shared Ancestry
Imagine a group of friends who all have a similar sense of humor, love the same music, and have a shared history of summer camp adventures. These friends might have different personalities, but deep down, they share a common bond that connects them like family.
In the world of genetics, we call such a group a population. A population is a group of individuals who share a common genetic heritage. They might live in the same area, belong to the same species, or even have a shared ancestor from long ago.
Now, think about how these friends stay connected. They hang out, share stories, and borrow clothes from each other. This exchange of ideas, styles, and even bacteria is called gene flow. Gene flow helps define a population because it keeps the group genetically similar.
For example, in a population of birds, gene flow can occur when birds mate with each other, sharing their genes and creating new combinations. Over time, gene flow can lead to the development of distinct populations, each with its own unique genetic characteristics.
So, there you have it! A population is a group of friends or birds or any other living thing that shares a common genetic heritage and stays connected through the flow of genes. It’s like a big, cozy family, but with DNA instead of love as the glue that binds them together.
Gene Pool: The Reservoir of Genetic Material
The Gene Pool: Nature’s Treasure Chest of Genetic Diversity
Picture this: a vast genetic library filled with the building blocks of life, each one a tiny blueprint for the traits that make you, well, you! This, my friends, is called the gene pool, the vibrant reservoir of all the genetic variations within a population.
It’s like the treasure chest of your family’s history, holding within it the stories of your ancestors and the potential for all the amazing traits that could be passed down through generations. Every individual in a population contributes their own unique set of genetic blueprints to the shared gene pool, creating a mosaic of diversity.
The gene pool is not just a passive collection of genes. It’s a living, breathing entity that constantly evolves and adapts as new alleles are introduced through mutations and genetic recombination. This pool of genetic variation is essential for the health and survival of a species. It allows populations to adapt to changing environmental conditions, overcome challenges, and maintain the vitality that makes evolution possible.
Just as a diverse menu offers a variety of flavors, a diverse gene pool increases the chances of finding the perfect combination of genes to meet the challenges of the world. Diversity is the spice of life, and the gene pool is the pantry that keeps it flavorful.
What’s an Allele? The Spice of Your Genetic Life
Imagine your genes as a big recipe book with instructions for building your unique self. Each gene is a specific recipe, and alleles are the different versions of that recipe. Think of it like baking cookies: You can use different flavors of chocolate chips (milk, dark, white) to create different kinds of cookies, right? Alleles work the same way.
Not So Black and White
Alleles come in pairs, one from each parent. It’s like getting half the recipe from Mom and the other half from Dad. Sometimes, these recipes are identical, like two bags of the same chocolate chips. That’s when you’re homozygous for that gene.
Other times, you get a mixed bag, like milk chocolate from Mom and dark chocolate from Dad. This is called being heterozygous. It’s like having a two-flavored cookie, with both milk and dark chocolate chips.
The Flavor of Your Traits
These different alleles play a big role in shaping your phenotype, or the physical and biochemical characteristics that make you unique. For example, alleles determine eye color, hair texture, blood type, and more.
So, alleles are like the spices in the genetic recipe of life. They add flavor, variety, and even some surprises to the final product: YOU!
Genotype: Unveiling Your Genetic Blueprint
Picture your genetic makeup as a blueprint for you, determining your unique traits and characteristics. This blueprint is known as your genotype, the combination of alleles you inherit from your parents.
Alleles are different versions of the same gene, like two halves of a puzzle that fit together. You inherit one allele from each parent, creating your unique genetic combination. If you inherit the same allele from both parents, you have a homozygous genotype. If you inherit different alleles, you have a heterozygous genotype.
Let’s say your gene for eye color has two alleles – brown and blue. If you inherit the same allele for brown eyes from both parents, you’ll have a homozygous genotype for brown eyes (BB). But if you inherit a brown allele from one parent and a blue allele from the other, you’ll have a heterozygous genotype for eye color (Bb).
Your genotype is like a recipe book for your body, guiding the formation of your phenotype – the observable traits you express, such as your eye color, hair texture, and height. So, the next time you look in the mirror, remember that the beautiful tapestry of your existence is woven from the threads of your genotype – a testament to the genetic dance that created you.
Phenotype: The Observable Traits
Phenotype: The Observable Traits
Picture this: You’re at the zoo, admiring the majestic lions with their golden manes. What you’re seeing is their phenotype, their observable physical characteristics. But behind that impressive fur, there’s a whole world of genetic wizardry going on, shaping their every trait.
Genotype: The Genetic Blueprint
Every organism carries a genotype, a unique genetic blueprint inherited from its parents. This blueprint is made up of alleles, different versions of genes. Think of alleles as different paint colors for a canvas. In our lion example, the allele for mane color could be “golden” or “brown.”
Connecting Genotype and Phenotype
The genotype, like a secret code, influences the observable traits we see in the phenotype. It’s like the instructions for building a living organism. While genes provide the recipe, the environment can also have a say in shaping the final product. For instance, a lion raised in a different habitat with less sunlight might have a slightly darker mane.
Phenotypes: The Canvas of Evolution
Phenotypes are the result of millions of years of evolution. Over time, natural selection has favored traits that enhance an organism’s survival and reproductive success. Those golden manes, for example, might have been favored as they made the lions more intimidating to rivals.
Phenotypes: The Key to Understanding Biology
Understanding phenotypes is key to grasping the diversity of life on Earth. From the vibrant colors of butterflies to the intricate patterns of fingerprints, phenotypes tell the story of genetic variation and adaptation. By decoding the genetic blueprint and its influence on observable traits, we can unravel the mysteries of life and appreciate the incredible tapestry of nature.
Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: A Stable Genetic Landscape
Unlocking the Secrets of Genetic Stability: Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium
Imagine a peaceful genetic world where allele and genotype frequencies remain constant, like a well-tuned orchestra playing in perfect harmony. This is the realm of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium, a concept that will blow your mind.
Meet the Rules of the Game
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is like the traffic laws of genetics, ensuring a stable genetic landscape. Here are its guiding principles:
- No sneaky newcomers: No new mutations or gene flow from other populations.
- Size matters: The population must be large enough to avoid random genetic fluctuations.
- No favoritism: All alleles have an equal chance of being inherited.
- No sneaky matches: Individuals mate randomly, without any preferences.
Conditions for Constancy
If these rules are strictly followed, the frequencies of alleles and genotypes will remain constant. Think of it as a genetic ballet, where the dancers (alleles) move together in perfect balance:
- Allele frequencies stay put: The proportions of different alleles in the gene pool remain unchanged.
- Genotype frequencies dance the fandango: The relative abundance of genotypes (homozygous and heterozygous) also stays the same.
Why it’s So Important
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is like the genetic compass that navigates populations through time. It provides a baseline for genetic change and helps scientists understand how populations evolve. Deviation from equilibrium can indicate genetic disorders, bottlenecks, or the influence of other evolutionary forces.
The Takeaway
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is a fundamental concept in genetics that offers a glimpse into the stability of genetic systems. By understanding its principles, we can better appreciate the complexities of genetic diversity and the fascinating dance of evolution.
Genetic Drift: The Random Shuffle
Genetic Drift: The Random Shuffle
Imagine you have a deck of cards and you’re playing a game of “Shuffly Shuffle.” Every time you shuffle the deck, some cards jump to the front, while others linger at the back. That’s kind of like what happens in genetics with genetic drift.
What is Genetic Drift?
Genetic drift is the random shift in the frequency of alleles and genotypes in a population. It’s like when you shuffle a deck of cards and the distribution of suits and numbers changes. But in genetics, the “cards” are alleles, and the “shuffle” is random events that can affect how they’re passed on.
How Genetic Drift Happens
Think of a small population of rabbits on a remote island. Maybe a storm blows through and wipes out half of them, or maybe a new predator moves in and targets rabbits with a certain allele. These events can skew the gene pool, changing the relative proportions of different alleles and genotypes.
The Impact of Genetic Drift
Genetic drift is especially important in small populations. The smaller the population, the more likely it is that random events will have a significant impact. Over time, genetic drift can reduce genetic diversity, making the population more vulnerable to environmental changes or diseases. It’s like putting all of your eggs in one basket—if something happens to that basket, you lose everything.
Example of Genetic Drift
Once upon a time, there was a small population of cheetahs. Cheetahs are known for their speed, but one day, a genetic mutation occurred that slowed down some of them. Due to a combination of bad luck and genetic drift, the slow cheetahs ended up becoming more common in the population. Today, most cheetahs have this mutation that affects their speed.
Genetic drift is a reminder that evolution isn’t always a straightforward climb towards perfection. Sometimes, it’s just a random shuffle that can have lasting consequences.
Natural Selection: Nature’s Sculptor
Picture this: You find yourself in a vast meadow teeming with wildflowers, each vying for survival amidst the relentless competition. Some flowers have petals that scream vibrant hues, attracting the attention of pollinators. Others possess sturdy stems that withstand the gusty wind, ensuring their genes pass on to the next generation.
This is the essence of natural selection, a phenomenon that has shaped the diversity of life on Earth over countless millennia. It’s like a grand tapestry, woven with the threads of individual survival and reproduction, ultimately painting the canvas of evolution.
Natural selection isn’t about strength or size; it’s about adaptation. Individuals that possess traits that give them an edge over their peers—like those vibrant petals or strong stems—are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on their advantageous genes.
Over generations, these advantageous traits become more common. Gradually, the population transforms, becoming better equipped to thrive in their specific environment. This is how evolution happens—a slow but steady dance of adaptation and change, guided by the relentless hand of natural selection.
So, the next time you see a dazzling array of wildflowers, remember that they’re not just pretty faces. They’re living testaments to the power of natural selection—nature’s master sculptor that shapes the living world around us.
Gene Flow: The Traveling Symphony of Genes
Imagine a vast musical festival, where melodies of life dance from one stage to another. In the world of genetics, gene flow is like that vibrant festival, carrying tunes of genetic material between populations.
What is Gene Flow?
Gene flow is the movement of genes, or more specifically, alleles, from one population to another. It’s like a musical collaboration, where the instruments of one band blend into the harmonies of another.
How does Gene Flow Happen?
Think of migrating birds carrying their songs and rhythms to distant lands. In the same way, gene flow can occur through:
- Population Movement: Animals and plants exploring new territories bring their genetic legacies along.
- Interbreeding: When individuals from different populations mate, they exchange their genetic blueprints.
- Pollen Dispersal: Wind or insects may transfer pollen from one plant population to another, bridging genetic gaps.
Effects of Gene Flow
Gene flow is a dynamic force that can reshape the genetic landscape of populations. It can:
- Increase Genetic Diversity: Like adding new instruments to an orchestra, gene flow introduces fresh alleles, enriching the overall genetic repertoire of a population.
- Reduce Genetic Diversity: In contrast, when populations become isolated, gene flow is restricted, leading to a decline in genetic variation.
- Drive Evolutionary Change: Genes responsible for advantageous traits can spread through populations via gene flow, shaping the evolutionary trajectory of species.
Importance of Gene Flow
Gene flow is crucial for:
- Adaptation to Changing Environments: As the environment transforms, gene flow allows populations to adapt by incorporating new genetic tools.
- Preventing Inbreeding: When populations are small or isolated, gene flow helps to prevent the accumulation of harmful genetic mutations that can result from inbreeding.
- Preserving Endangered Species: Gene flow can help maintain genetic diversity within endangered species, increasing their chances of survival.
In short, gene flow is the musical exchange that orchestrates the symphony of life’s genetic diversity. It’s a fundamental process that shapes the evolutionary tapestry of our planet and ensures the continuity of life forms. So, let us celebrate the traveling melodies of gene flow, the musical bridge that unites the genetic heritage of the living world.
Mutation: The Source of New Genetic Material
Mutation: The Source of New Genetic Material
Mutations are those unpredictable and exciting plot twists in the story of life! They’re like the spontaneous inventions that fuel biological progress. Mutations are simply changes in the DNA sequence, the blueprint for all living things.
Now, mutations come in all shapes and sizes. Some are like minor spelling mistakes, while others can be complete plot overhauls. But here’s the cool part: not all mutations are bad. In fact, some are downright beneficial!
Beneficial Mutations: The Heroes of Evolution
Imagine a population of rabbits living in a snow-covered forest. Suddenly, one rabbit is born with a slightly thicker coat. This mutation gives it an edge in the cold, helping it survive and reproduce. Over time, this “thick-coat” gene becomes more common in the population, boosting their chances of survival in the harsh environment. That’s how beneficial mutations drive evolution, creating new traits that help organisms adapt and thrive.
Neutral Mutations: The Bystanders of Biology
Some mutations are like silent spectators in the genetic play. They don’t change the story one bit. These neutral mutations are like harmless misspellings that don’t affect the overall meaning of a sentence. They neither help nor hinder an organism’s survival.
Harmful Mutations: The Villains in the Plot
But not all mutations are so innocent. Some are like mischievous villains, wreaking havoc on the genetic landscape. These harmful mutations can cause genetic disorders, health issues, or even prevent an organism from surviving at all. Think of them as the plot twists that can lead to tragedy.
Mutations are the wild cards in the game of life, continuously shuffling the genetic deck. They introduce new possibilities, driving the never-ending story of evolution. So, the next time you hear about a mutation, don’t just think of it as a mistake. It’s a chance for something new, a potential catalyst for the next chapter in life’s extraordinary tale.
Genetic Recombination: The Genetic Mixer
Mixing the Genes
Just like in a recipe where you combine different ingredients to create a new dish, genetic recombination is the process of shuffling and exchanging genetic material to create new and unique combinations. Imagine each gene as a different ingredient, and genetic recombination is like a chef creating a brand new dish by mixing and matching these ingredients.
Role in Creating New Allele Combinations
Recombination is a crucial player in the genetic diversity game. It’s like a genetic lottery, where different combinations of alleles (alternative forms of a gene) are created. These new allele combinations can lead to novel traits and characteristics, increasing the genetic diversity within a population. It’s like adding new flavors to a soup, creating a more complex and flavorful genetic landscape.
Increasing Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is like the spice of life—it’s essential for species survival and adaptation. Recombination ensures that there’s a wider range of genetic possibilities, which helps populations adapt to changing environments and increases their chances of surviving challenges. Think of it as having a diverse spice rack—the more spices you have, the more flavors you can create and the better equipped you are to handle any culinary adventure that comes your way.
Genetic recombination is the secret ingredient in the genetic diversity recipe. It mixes and matches genes, creating new possibilities and increasing the spice of life. It’s like a genetic dance party, where different genes come together to create a symphony of new and unique combinations. So next time you’re marveling at the diversity of life on Earth, remember the role of genetic recombination—the ultimate genetic mixer that keeps the genetic party going strong.
Genetic Variation: The Spice of Life
Imagine a world where every human being was genetically identical. It would be like a planet full of clones, with no individuality, no diversity, and no room for evolution. Thankfully, genetic variation saves us from this monotonous fate.
Genetic variation is the difference in genetic material among individuals within a population. It’s like the spice that flavors the soup of life, adding variety and adaptability. Without it, species would stagnate, unable to adapt to changing environments or evolve new traits.
Why is Genetic Variation Important?
Variation is crucial for adaptation, the process by which species adjust to their surroundings. Different alleles, or gene variations, provide the raw material for natural selection to work its magic. For example, in a cold climate, individuals with thicker fur alleles may have a better chance of survival and pass on their beneficial genes.
Variation also reduces the risk of genetic disorders. When two closely related individuals mate, they share more identical alleles, increasing the likelihood of inheriting harmful recessive traits. Genetic variation dilutes this risk, ensuring a healthier, more resilient population.
So, the next time you look in the mirror and marvel at your unique genetic makeup, remember that variation is the spice of life. It’s the driving force behind our diversity, adaptability, and survival as a species. Embrace your genetic uniqueness and celebrate the beautiful tapestry of life!
Heterozygosity: The Genetic Jack of All Trades
Imagine a genetic coin flip, where instead of heads or tails, you get two different alleles. That’s heterozygosity, baby! It’s when you inherit different versions of a gene from your mom and dad, creating a unique genetic mix.
Why is this genetic cocktail so cool? Because it’s the secret sauce for genetic diversity. The more heterozygotes in a population, the more genetic blueprints there are, making the whole group more resilient and adaptable. It’s like having a toolbox full of different tools instead of just a hammer.
But how does heterozygosity help? Well, it’s like an insurance policy against genetic disorders. Imagine one allele is a reliable old car, and the other is a flashy new sports car. If one of them breaks down, you’ve still got a backup to keep you rolling. Heterozygotes are less likely to suffer from recessive disorders that can pop up when you have two copies of the “bad” allele.
In a nutshell, heterozygosity is the genetic equivalent of a diverse investment portfolio. It spreads the risk and boosts the chances of survival in a constantly changing world.
Homozygosity: Identical Alleles
Homozygosity: When You’re All About That Genetic Twin Thing
Imagine you’re a gene. Picture yourself as a tiny piece of DNA, chilling on a chromosome like it’s your own private beach. Now, let’s say you have a twin—an identical twin, to be exact. That’s homozygosity for you, my friend. It’s when you’ve got two copies of the same allele (a variation of a gene) at the same gene locus.
The Good, the Bad, and the Homozygosity
Homozygosity can be a good thing, sometimes. It means your cells are getting the same instructions from both copies of your genes, which can **boost* the expression of certain traits. For example, if you inherit two copies of a gene that helps you digest lactose, you might be able to chow down on dairy products without getting bloated like a balloon.
But here’s where it gets tricky: Homozygosity can also lead to some not-so-great consequences. If you inherit two copies of a harmful allele, you’re more likely to develop a genetic disorder. That’s because there’s no healthy copy of the gene to make up for the faulty one. This is especially true for recessive alleles, which only cause problems when you have two copies.
A Balancing Act
The key is to have a balance. A little bit of homozygosity is okay, but too much can increase your risk of health issues. That’s why genetic counselors often look at a person’s heterozygosity (having two different alleles) as well as their homozygosity when assessing their risk for genetic disorders.
So, there you have it: homozygosity—the genetic twin thing. Remember, it’s not all good or all bad. It’s just one part of the complex and amazing world of genetics.
Effective Population Size: A Measure of Genetic Diversity
Picture yourself at a party with a group of friends. Imagine you’re throwing a house party, and only a few of your friends show up. Does that give you a good idea of how many friends you have in total? Not really, right?
That’s because the number of friends who showed up is not the same as the overall number of friends you have. Using the same logic. Similarly, when studying a population of organisms, scientists use a concept called effective population size to estimate how much genetic diversity exists within that population.
Effective population size doesn’t just count the total number of individuals; it considers factors that can reduce genetic diversity. These factors include:
- Population bottlenecks: Imagine a natural disaster wipes out most of your party guests. This bottleneck event would drastically reduce the genetic diversity of your remaining friends. The same can happen in natural populations when events like habitat loss or disease outbreaks reduce population size.
- Fluctuations: Now, imagine your party guests kept coming and going all night. This fluctuation in population size can also reduce genetic diversity over time, as some genes may be lost as individuals leave the population.
Scientists use mathematical models to calculate effective population size using information like the number of breeding individuals and the amount of genetic variation. A larger effective population size generally means greater genetic diversity, making the population more resilient to environmental changes and less susceptible to genetic disorders.
Understanding effective population size is crucial for conservation efforts. For example, wildlife managers might focus on increasing the effective population size of endangered species to ensure their long-term survival. By implementing measures to reduce population bottlenecks and fluctuations, scientists can help maintain genetic diversity and preserve the health of our ecosystems.
So, there you have it. Effective population size is not just a number; it’s a measure of the genetic health of a population. Just like a party with plenty of friends, a population with a large effective population size is more likely to be thriving and resilient.
Linkage Disequilibrium: When Genes Travel Together
Linkage Disequilibrium: When Genes Travel Together
Hey there, gene enthusiasts! Today, we’re diving into the fascinating world of linkage disequilibrium, where genes decide to tag along like best buddies.
What’s Linkage Disequilibrium?
Imagine a group of genes lined up like kids in a schoolyard. In most cases, they’re like independent spirits, hanging out wherever they want. But sometimes, certain genes become buddies, traveling together like inseparable siblings. This tight bond is what we call linkage disequilibrium.
Why Do Genes Become Friends?
There are a few reasons why genes might buddy up. One reason is if they’re located close to each other on the same chromosome. It’s like they’re living next door and decide to carpool to the party. Another reason is if the genes are inherited together from the same parent. Think of it as a genetic legacy they share.
The Effects of Linkage Disequilibrium
Having genes that travel together can have a big impact on our health and traits. For instance, some genes linked together might be responsible for a certain disease, while other linked genes might give us an advantage in certain environments.
Why is this important? Well, knowing about linkage disequilibrium helps scientists track down disease-causing genes more easily. It’s like having a secret map that leads them to the culprits lurking within our DNA.
Real-World Examples
Let’s imagine a group of people have a particular gene linked to red hair. When scientists study this group, they might notice that another gene, this time linked to freckles, is also more common in people with red hair. This tells them that the two genes are buddies, and they can use this information to better understand the genetic basis of both traits.
So, there you have it, the world of linkage disequilibrium where genes become best friends. It’s an important concept that helps us unravel the mysteries of our genetic makeup and its impact on who we are.
Haplotypes: The Sticky Note Secrets of Our DNA
Picture your DNA as a library filled with countless books. Each book represents a gene, and each gene comes in different versions, called alleles. Imagine if some of these books were glued together, forming a sticky note. This sticky note is what we call a haplotype, a group of alleles inherited together from one parent.
Haplotypes act like DNA detectives, helping scientists unravel the secrets of our genetic makeup. They’re like “whodunnits” for our genetic traits, providing clues about our ancestry, susceptibility to diseases, and even our response to treatments.
For example, say you have a haplotype for a gene that influences your eye color. If your parents both have brown eyes, but you have blue eyes, your haplotype is likely to be different from theirs. This difference could explain why your eyes stand out from the crowd.
Haplotypes also play a critical role in genetic studies. By comparing haplotypes between individuals, researchers can track how genes are passed down through generations. It’s like a DNA family tree, helping us trace our genetic roots and identify patterns that may be linked to certain diseases.
But not all haplotypes are created equal. Some sticky notes are more common than others. If a haplotype is especially prevalent in a population, it could indicate that it’s associated with a particular trait or disease. Scientists use this information to pinpoint genetic risk factors and develop more personalized treatments.
So, the next time you think about your DNA, remember the sticky note secrets of haplotypes. They’re the backstage pass to the molecular theater that shapes our unique traits and medical destinies.
Population Structure: Divisions Within
Imagine a vast forest bustling with life. Each tree, though unique in its own way, belongs to a particular species, a group of trees sharing similar genetic traits. Within this forest, there might be several subpopulations of the same species, each with its own distinctive genetic makeup. This is what we call population structure.
Just like the subpopulations of trees in our forest, human populations can also exhibit genetic differences due to various factors. One major cause of population structure is geographic isolation. When a group of individuals becomes separated from the main population due to physical barriers like mountains or rivers, they may develop distinct genetic traits over time. This separation limits gene flow, the exchange of genetic material between populations, and allows genetic drift to take hold.
Genetic drift is a random process that can alter the genetic makeup of a population, especially in small subpopulations. It’s like playing a game of genetic roulette, where alleles (different forms of a gene) can fluctuate randomly. This can lead to the loss of some alleles and the increase in frequency of others, resulting in genetic differentiation between subpopulations.
Population structure can have profound consequences. Genetic diversity, the variation in genetic material within a population, is crucial for species survival. It provides a wider pool of genetic resources to draw upon, increasing the chances of adaptation to changing environmental conditions. Subpopulations with reduced genetic diversity may be more vulnerable to extinction due to a lack of genetic variation.
Moreover, population structure can impact the spread of genetic disorders. Certain genetic disorders may be more prevalent within a specific subpopulation due to genetic drift or founder effects, where a small group of individuals with a particular genetic trait establishes a new population. Understanding population structure can help researchers identify genetic markers associated with these disorders and develop targeted screening and treatment strategies.
So, next time you’re exploring a forest or marveling at the diversity of life, remember that even within a single species, there can be hidden genetic divisions that shape the destiny of its members. Population structure is a fascinating and ever-evolving field of study, providing insights into the complexities of genetics and the interconnectedness of all living things.
That’s all I have for you today on population genetics, folks! I hope you learned a little something and enjoyed the read. If you have any questions or comments, feel free to drop me a line. Otherwise, thanks for stopping by and be sure to check back later for more interesting topics. I’ll be waiting!